These findings suggest that domestic ducks in southern China mediate the interaction of viruses between different gene pools and facilitate the generation of novel influenza virus variants circulating in poultry.”
“Persistent hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a primary etiological factor for the development of chronic liver disease, including cirrhosis and cancer. A recent study identified occludin (OCLN), an integral tight junction protein, as one of the key factors for HCV entry into cells. We explored the splicing diversity of OCLN in normal MK-8776 price human liver and observed variable expression of alternative splice variants, including two known forms

(WT-OCLN and OCLN-ex4del) and six novel forms (OCLN-ex7ext, OCLN-ex3pdel, OCLN-ex3del, OCLN-ex3-4del, OCLN-ex3p-9pdel, and OCLN-ex3p-7pdel). Recombinant protein isoforms WT-OCLN and OCLN-ex7ext, which retained the HCV-interacting MARVEL domain, were expressed on the cell membrane and were permissive for HCV

infection in in vitro infectivity assays. All other forms lacked the MARVEL domain, were expressed in the cytoplasm, and were nonpermissive for HCV infection. Additionally, we selleck chemical observed variable expression of OCLN splicing forms across human tissues and cell lines. Our study suggests that the remarkable natural splicing diversity of OCLN might contribute to HCV tissue tropism and possibly modify the outcome of HCV infection in humans. Genetic factors crucial for regulation of OCLN expression and susceptibility to HCV infection remain to be elucidated.”
“Voltage-gated Na+ channel (VGSC) beta Subunits Nutlin-3a cost are not “”auxiliary.”" These multi-functional molecules

not only modulate Na+ current (I-NA), but also function as cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) playing roles in aggregation, migration, invasion, neurite outgrowth, and axonal fasciculation. beta subunits are integral members of VGSC signaling complexes at nodes of Ranvier, axon initial segments, and cardiac intercalated disks, regulating action potential propagation through critical intermolecular and cell-cell communication events. At least in vitro, many beta subunit cell adhesive functions occur both in the presence and absence of pore-forming VGSC to subunits, and in vivo beta subunits are expressed in excitable as well as non-excitable cells, thus beta subunits may play important functional roles on their own, in the absence of a subunits. VGSC beta subunits are essential for life and appear to be especially important during brain development. Mutations in beta subunit genes result in a variety of human neurological and cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, some cancer cells exhibit alterations in beta subunit expression during metastasis. In short, these proteins, originally thought of as merely accessory to alpha subunits, are critical players in their own right in human health and disease.

Almost 6500 articles have been published since then, and subtype-selective mGlu receptor ligands are now under clinical development for the treatment of a variety of disorders such as Fragile-X syndrome, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease and l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias, generalized anxiety disorder, chronic pain, and gastroesophageal reflux disorder. Prof. Erminio Costa was linked to the early times of the mGlu receptor history, when a few research groups challenged the general

belief click here that glutamate could only activate ionotropic receptors and all metabolic responses to glutamate were secondary to calcium entry. This review moves from those nostalgic times to the most recent advances in the physiology and pharmacology of mGlu receptors,

and highlights the role of individual mGlu receptor subtypes in the pathophysiology of human disorders.

This article is part of a Special Issue entitled ‘Trends in Neuropharmacology: In Memory of Erminio Costa’. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Environmental factors play an important role in the seasonal adaptation of body mass and thermogenesis in small, wild mammals. The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis Nec-1s cell line that ambient temperature was a cue to trigger the seasonal adjustments in body mass, energy intake, uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) in brown adipose tissue (BAT), and other biochemical characteristics of Eothenomys miletus during 49 days of cold exposure. Our data demonstrated that cold acclimation induced a remarkable decrease in body mass, a significant increase in energy intake and metabolic rate, and high expression of UCP1 in BAT of E. miletus. Biochemical characteristics

of BAT and liver respiration were also increased following cold acclimation. These data suggest that E. miletus reduced the body mass and increased energy intake and expenditure under cold acclimation. Increased expression of UCP1 was potentially involved find more in the regulation of energy metabolism and thermogenic capacity following cold acclimation. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Key developments in GABA pharmacology over the last 30 years are reviewed with special reference to the advances pioneered by Erminio Costa. His passion for innovative science, and his quest for novel therapies for psychiatric disorders are particularly apparent in his fundamental contributions to the field of GABA research, with a focus on anxiety disorders and schizophrenia. He was a cofounder of the GABAergic mechanism of action of benzodiazepines. He envisaged partial agonists as novel anxiolytics. He identified DBI (diazepam binding inhibitor) as endogenous agonist of neurosteroidogenesis with multiple CNS effects and he pointed to the developmental origin of GABAergic dysfunctions in schizophrenia through his discovery of a reelin deficit, all this in collaboration with Sandro Guidotti.

Results: Forty-eight artery ring segments from 8 patients were studied. Absolute maximum contraction to U44619 was significantly less in rings subjected to the blower-mister device than in controls (internal VE822 thoracic artery: 17.17

+/- 2.57 mN vs 8.67 +/- 4.54 mN, P<.048; greater saphenous vein: 28.33 +/- 9.71 mN vs 11.42 +/- 7.97 mN, P<.026). Control rings had significantly greater endothelium-dependent relaxation response to acetylcholine (mean difference 29.2% +/- 3.4%, P<.001), whereas those subjected to the blower-mister device had reduced responses. Endothelium-independent relaxation to nitroprusside was not significantly different among the groups.

Conclusions: Vessels exposed to the air and water stream of a blower-mister device showed a reduced vasoreactivity. This effect should be studied further, especially if it contributes to lower graft patency rates in off-pump surgery. (J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2010; 140: 923-7)”
“BACKGROUND: When identifying clinical markers predicting clinical outcome, disease recurrence and resistance to therapies often determine the diagnosis and therapy of some cancer types.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether 14-3-3zeta positive expression is an indicator of prognosis in patients with glioblastoma.

METHODS: Forty-seven patients treated with surgery, radiotherapy, and adjuvant chemotherapy between 2005 and 2007 were divided into 2 groups according to 14-3-3zeta expression in

an immunohistochemical study: the 14-3-3zeta negative group (n = 12 patients) and the 14-3-3zeta positive group (n = 35 patients). The clinicopathologic DihydrotestosteroneDHT features and survival data for patients in the 14-3-3zeta positive group

were compared with data from the patients in the 14-3-3zeta negative group. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and univariate and multivariate analyses were performed to determine the prognostic factors that influenced patient survival.

RESULTS: 14-3-3zeta positive expression was observed in approximately 74.5% of patients with glioblastoma. Patients in the 14-3-3zeta positive group had lower overall survival rates and median Bcr-Abl inhibitor survival time than those in the 14-3-3zeta negative group (overall 2-year actuarial survival rates, 8.6% for the 14-3-3zeta positive group vs 16.7% for the 14-3-3zeta negative group; overall 2-year median survival time, 12.9 months for the 14-3-3zeta positive group vs 17.9 months for the 14-3-3zeta negative group, P = .019). 14-3-3zeta positive expression in tumor cells also was correlated with a shorter interval to tumor recurrence (median interval to recurrence, 5.9 months in the 14-3-3zeta positive group vs 8.3 months in the 14-3-3zeta negative group, P = .002). Univariate and multivariate analyses showed that 14-3-3zeta positive expression was an independent prognostic factor.

CONCLUSION: 14-3-3zeta positive expression can be used as a potential molecular risk factor in patients with glioblastoma.

(C) 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Objective: This study assessed the efficacy of antibiotic-loaded polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) beads in the treatment of lower extremity vascular surgical site infections (VSSIs).

Methods: This was a retrospective review of all patients with a VSSI of a lower extremity bypass treated with antibiotic-loaded PMMA beads and culture-specific antibiotics during a 4.5-year period. Data collected included patient demographics, comorbidities, site of initial graft infection,

symptoms and signs at presentation, initial and additional surgical debridement, wound culture results, type of antibiotic beads implanted, and graft treatment strategy, comprising GANT61 datasheet conduit preservation or in situ replacement, with associated soft tissue management

by muscle flap or vacuum-assisted closure. Eltanexor Primary outcome measures included death, recurrent infection, and limb salvage.

Results: Forty patients developed 42 extracavitary lower extremity VSSIs (bilateral groin infections in two). Patients were treated according to our treatment algorithm with antibiotic-impregnated PMMA beads. Previous reconstructions included nine aortofemoral bypasses (groin infection only), 20 infrainguinal bypasses, five extra-anatomic bypasses, five femoral interpositions, two combined inflow-outflow bypass procedures, and one patch angioplasty with VSSI. Cultures isolated 59 pathogens (39 gram-positive, 18 gram-negative, 2 Candida spp). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was cultured from 10 VSSs (23.8%) overall and from 27.7% of those patients with attempted graft preservation or in situ reconstructions. Two patients (4.8%) had no growth despite selleck chemical clinical signs of infection. Repeat VSS exploration and culture results led to an average of 1.4 bead replacements before definitive treatment. Final treatment strategy included graft preservation of patent bypasses in 28, partial graft excision with in situ replacement in eight, graft removal

only with residual graft remaining at implant site (ie, incorporated anastomotic conduit, 11.9%) in five, and extra-anatomic reconstruction in one. Sartorius muscle flap was performed in 14 groin infections (37.8%). The 30-day mortality was 0%, and limb loss was 7.1% (n = 3). At the median follow-up of 17 months, the limb loss was 21.4% and the recurrent infection rate was 19.4% (seven of 36) in those with attempted graft preservation or in situ replacement.

Conclusions: Antibiotic-loaded PMMA beads may serve as an adjunct in the management of VSSIs and may also expand treatment options for graft preservation or in situ reconstruction, with expected recurrent infection rate approaching 20%. Further experience with this adjunct may help elucidate its role in the management of this complicated problem, including the need for bead exchanges, until perigraft cultures are free of microbes.

RESULTS

A total of 65% of participants in the therapy group and 52% of participants in the individual-support group completed all three assessments. Mean scores for combined depression and anxiety improved in the individual-support group (2.2 at baseline, 1.7 at the end of treatment, and 1.5 at 6 months after treatment), but improvements were significantly greater in the therapy group (2.0 at baseline, 0.8 at the end of treatment, and 0.7 at 6 months after treatment) (P<0.001 for all comparisons). Similar patterns were observed

for PTSD and LEE011 ic50 functional impairment. At 6 months after treatment, 9% of participants in the therapy group and 42% of participants in the individual-support group met criteria for probable depression or anxiety (P<0.001), with similar results for PTSD.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study of sexual-violence survivors in a low-income, conflict-affected country, group psychotherapy reduced PTSD symptoms and combined depression and anxiety symptoms and improved functioning.”
“n-3

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are considered to be authentic immunosuppressors and appear to exert beneficial effects with respect to certain immune-mediated diseases. In addition to promoting T-helper 1 (Th1) Selleck Nutlin 3a cell to T-helper 2 (Th2) cell effector T-cell differentiation, n-3 PUFA selleck compound may also exert anti-inflammatory actions by inducing apoptosis in Th1 cells. With respect to mechanisms of action, effects

range from the modulation of membrane receptors to gene transcription via perturbation of a number of second messenger cascades. In this review, the putative targets of anti-inflammatory n-3 PUFA, activated during early and late events of T-cell activation will be discussed. Studies have demonstrated that these fatty acids alter plasma membrane micro-organization (lipid rafts) at the immunological synapse, the site where T-cells and antigen-presenting cells (APC) form a physical contact for antigen initiated T-cell signaling. In addition, the production of diacylglycerol and the activation of different isoforms of protein kinase C (PKC), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), calcium signaling, and nuclear translocation/activation of transcriptional factors, can be modulated by n-3 PUFA. Advantages and limitations of diverse methodologies to study the membrane lipid raft hypothesis, as well as apparent contradictions regarding the effect of n-3 PUFA on lipid rafts will be critically presented. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

(C) 2009 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Our recent studies showed buy PRI-724 that exposure to mixed indoor air pollutants in a newly decorated residential apartment induced expanded simple tandem repeats (ESTR) mutations in mice, and the mutations were mainly inherited from the paternal germ line. Formaldehyde (FA) is a type of major volatile organic chemical (VOC) present in indoor air, and a constituent known to be associated with sick building syndrome. In the present study, mice were exposed to different concentrations of FA (0, 2, 20, or 200 mg/m3). The germline mutations were detected in their offspring using three ESTR probes, Ms6-hm, Hm-2, and MMS10. Data indicated that mice exposed

to 200 mg/m3 FA demonstrated a significant elevation in ESTR mutations, which is due primarily to an increase in mutations inherited through the paternal Batimastat mw germ line. These results suggest that FA induced ESTR mutations in mice. It is postulated that single FA exposure might be a useful model to identify indoor air mixture exposure-induced heritable DNA damage.”
“The effect of experimentally induced acute renal

failure (ARF) on neuronal cell activation was investigated by immunohistochemistry for Fos and Fra-2 in the rat brain. ARF in rats was induced by bilateral nephrectomy (BNX), bilateral ureter ligature (BUL) and uranyl acetate injection with proper controls (sham-operation or saline injections, respectively). To follow the effect of the development of ARF, rats were killed 30 and 60 min, and 3, 12, 24 and 72 h after surgery, or 3 h to 12 days after uranyl acetate injections. In the BUL and BNX

rats, urea and creatinine rose markedly in the plasma within 72 h, while in the uranyl acetate-injected rats the highest levels were observed on the 7th day, followed by a marked decline.

At each time-point of the three different, experimentally induced ARF, the presence of Fos- and/or Fra-2-immunoreactive neurons was determined in 120 different brain areas and nuclei. In general, the 73 of 120 https://www.selleck.cn/products/i-bet151-gsk1210151a.html brain areas that showed time and intensity dependent activation in response to ARF can be classified into four groups: 1) biogenic amine (noradrenaline, adrenaline, histamine and 5-HT) expressing cell groups in the lower brainstem, 2) “”stress-sensitive”" forebrain areas, with regard to certain hypothalamic, limbic and cortical areas, 3) neuronal cell groups that participate in the central regulation of body and brain water and electrolyte homeostasis, including the circumventricular organs, and 4) central autonomic cell groups, especially visceral sensory cell groups in the brain, which are in primary, secondary or tertiary connections with renal afferents. Data presented here indicate that a wide variety of neurons in several regulatory mechanisms is affected by ARF-induced peripheral and central alterations. (C) 2009 IBRO.

Therefore, we explored whether PEMF signals could alter the course of IL-1 beta production in rats subjected to closed-head contusive weight-drop injuries (Marmarou method) and penetrating needle-stick

brain injuries. Protein levels, measured by the Biorad assay, were not altered by injuries or PEMF treatment. In addition, we verified that IL-1 beta levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) were proportional to injury severity in the contusion model. Results demonstrate that PEMF treatment attenuated IL-1 beta levels up to 10-fold in CSF within 6 h after contusive injury and also significantly suppressed IL-1 beta within 17-24h after penetrating injury. In contrast, no differences in IL-1 beta were seen between PEMF-treated and control groups in brain homogenates. To the authors’ knowledge, this

is the first report of the use of PEMF to modulate an inflammatory cytokine after TBI. These results warrant further studies to assess selleck screening library the effects of PEMF on other inflammatory markers and functional outcomes. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The distinct feature of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is see more a high incidence of chronicity. The reason for chronic HCV infection has been actively investigated, and impairment of innate and adaptive immune responses against HCV is proposed as a plausible cause. Whereas functional impairment of HCV-specific T cells is well characterized, the role and functional status of natural

tuclazepam killer (NK) cells in each phase of HCV infection are still elusive. We therefore investigated whether direct interaction between NK cells and HCV-infected cells modulates NK cell function. HCV-permissive human hepatoma cell lines were infected with cell culturegenerated HCV virions and cocultured with primary human NK cells. Cell-to-cell contact between NK cells and HCV-infected cells reduced NK cells’ capacity to degranulate and lyse target cells, especially in the CD56(dim) NK cell subset, which is characterized by low-density surface expression of CD56. The decrease in degranulation capacity was correlated with downregulated expression of NK cell-activating receptors, such as NKG2D and NKp30, on NK cells. The ability of NK cells to produce and secrete gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) also diminished after exposure to HCV-infected cells. The decline of IFN-gamma production was consistent with the reduction of NK cell degranulation. In conclusion, cell-to-cell contact with HCV-infected cells negatively modulated functional capacity of NK cells, and the inhibition of NK cell function was associated with downregulation of NK-activating receptors on NK cell surfaces. These observations suggest that direct cell-to-cell interaction between NK cells and HCV-infected hepatocytes may impair NK cell function in vivo and thereby contribute to the establishment of chronic infection.

In this research, the hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues of two leucine zipper coiled-coil (LZCC) structural proteins, cGKI alpha(1-59) and MBS(CT35) are dispositioned on the wenxiang diagrams according to heptad repeat pattern (abcdefg)(n), respectively. Their wenxiang diagrams clearly demonstrate that the residues with same repeat letters are laid on same side of the spiral diagrams, where most hydrophobic residues are positioned at a and d, and most hydrophilic residues are localized on b, c, e, f and g polar

position regions. The wenxiang diagrams of a dimetric Foretinib LZCC can be represented by the combination of two monomeric wenxiang diagrams, and the wenxiang diagrams of the two LZCC (tetramer) complex structures can also be assembled by using two pairs of their wenxiang diagrams. Furthermore, by comparing the wenxiang diagrams of cGKI alpha(1-59) and MBS(CT35), the interaction between cGKI alpha(1-59) and MBS(CT35) is suggested to be weaker. By analyzing the wenxiang diagram of the cGKI alpha(1-59) center dot MBS(CT42) complex structure, most affected residues of cGKI alpha(1-59) by the interaction with MBS(CT42) are proposed at positions d, a, e and g of the LZCC structure. These findings are consistent with our previous NMR results. Incorporating NMR spectroscopy, the wenxiang diagrams of LZCC structures may provide novel insights into

the interaction mechanisms between dimeric, trimeric, tetrameric coiled-coil structures. (c) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The potential to increase unlimitedly in number and to generate differentiated cell types is a key feature of somatic stem cells. Within the nervous system, cellular Ulixertinib in vivo and environmental determinants tightly control the expansion and differentiation of neural stem cells. Importantly, a number of studies have indicated that changes in cell cycle length can influence development and physiopathology of the nervous system, and might have played a role during evolution of the mammalian brain. Specifically, it has been suggested that the length of G1 can directly influence the differentiation of neural precursors. NVP-BSK805 supplier This

has prompted the proposal of a model to explain how manipulation of G1 length can be used to expand neural stem cells. If validated in non-neural systems, this model might provide the means to control the proliferation vs. differentiation of somatic stem cells, which will represent a significant advance in the field.”
“Many theories have been advanced to explain how the brain incorporates time into its computations, in particular for the purpose of estimating the duration of an event. In the present study we examine with a new paradigm the ability to compare the duration of two visual stimuli in the parafoveal visual field, presented either sequentially or overlapping in time. We found that judging the duration of a pair of objects is more difficult when they overlap in time.

The relationship between the two methods was examined with the intention of establishing if the simpler CTM could be used for future testing of thermal sensitivity thereby allowing for extrapolation of longer duration thermal stress. Of the ten species examined, Aphanicerca capensis, Paramelita nigroculus, Chimarra ambulans,

4SC-202 cost Castanophlebia sp. and Afronurus barnardi were all thermally sensitive and had distinct thermal endpoints making them excellent test organisms. There was a significant positive linear relationship between the estimated incipient lethal upper temperature (ILUT) and critical thermal maximum (CTmax), which facilitates future experimental work based on CTM. Future evaluation of hourly in situ stream temperatures to identify periods of exceedance of these 96 h LT(50)s, in addition to experimental 10 day LT(50)s, will enable comparison of laboratory data with field conditions, and ultimately the derivation of target water temperature thresholds for management purposes. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Scaffold proteins influence cellular signalling by binding to multiple signalling enzymes, receptors or ion channels. Although normally devoid of catalytic activity, they have a big impact on controlling the flow of signalling information. By assembling signalling proteins into complexes, they play the part of signal processing

hubs. As we learn more about the way signalling components are linked into natural signalling circuits, researchers are becoming interested in building non-natural Givinostat ic50 signalling pathways

to test our knowledge and/or to intentionally reprogram cellular behaviour. In this review, we discuss the role of scaffold proteins as efficient tools for assembling intracellular signalling complexes, both natural and artificial.”
“The purpose of the present study was to look for the possible predictors which might ABT-737 manufacturer discriminate between high- and low-grade gliomas by pooling dynamic contrast-enhanced (DCE)-perfusion derived indices and immunohistochemical markers.

DCE-MRI was performed in 76 patients with different grades of gliomas. Perfusion indices, i.e., relative cerebral blood volume (rCBV), relative cerebral blood flow (rCBF), permeability (k (trans) and k (ep)), and leakage (v (e)) were quantified. MMP-9-, PRL-3-, HIF-1 alpha-, and VEGF-expressing cells were quantified from the excised tumor tissues. Discriminant function analysis using these markers was used to identify discriminatory variables using a stepwise procedure. To look for correlations between immunohistochemical parameters and DCE metrics, Pearson’s correlation coefficient was also used.

A discriminant function for differentiating between high- and low-grade tumors was constructed using DCE-MRI-derived rCBV, k (ep), and v (e). The form of the functions estimated are “”D (1) = 0.642 x rCBV + 0.591 x k (ep) -aEuro parts per thousand 1.501 x v (e) -aEuro parts per thousand 1.550″” and “”D (2) = 1.608 x rCBV + 3.033 x k (ep) + 5.

Thiamine uptake mediated by feTHTR1 was indeed blocked by FeLV-A infection, and in feline fibroblasts that naturally express feTHTR1 and not feTHTR2, this blockade resulted in a growth arrest at physiological concentrations of extracellular thiamine. The growth arrest was reversed at high extracellular Tubastatin A concentrations of thiamine.

Our results show that FeLV-A infection can indeed disrupt thiamine uptake with pathological consequences. A prediction of these experiments is that raising the plasma levels of thiamine in FeLV-infected cats may ameliorate the pathogenic effects of infection.”
“Objective: The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between glycogen synthase 3 beta gene polymorphisms and bipolar I disorder, manic in a Korean sample.

Methods: Patients with bipolar disorder (n = 118) and a control group (n = 158) were assessed by genotyping for GSK3 beta single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) -1727A/T and -50C/T. The patients were divided into two groups according to the presence of psychotic symptoms (psychotic mania, n = 92; eFT-508 ic50 non-psychotic mania, n = 26) and

also divided based on gender and age of onset. The severity of symptoms was measured using the Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) and the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS).

Results: There were no significant differences in the genotype distributions or allelic frequencies of GSK3 beta polymorphisms and gender between patients with bipolar disorder and a normal control group. According to haplotype analysis, there was no association between these two groups. However, analysis of the age of onset of bipolar disorder revealed significant differences in genotype

and allele distributions among the patients. Patients who were homozygous for the wild-type variant (TT) had an older age of onset than carriers of the mutant allele (A/A: 27.4 +/- 9.1; A/T: 30.1 +/- 11.8; T/T: 42.3 +/- 19.9; p = 0.034). We detected differences in allele frequencies of the GSK3 beta -1727A/T polymorphism between the psychotic mania group and the non-psychotic mania group.

Conclusion: This study suggests that https://www.selleck.cn/products/poziotinib-hm781-36b.html GSK3 beta polymorphisms are not associated with bipolar disorder. However, the GSK3 beta SNP -1727A/T is associated with age of onset and presence of psychotic symptoms in bipolar disorder. (C) 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.”
“Sindbis virus (SINV) infection of neurons results in nonfatal viral encephalomyelitis and provides a model system for understanding recovery from virus infection of the central nervous system (CNS). Infection is followed by clearance of infectious virus, a gradual decrease in viral RNA, and then long-term maintenance of low levels of viral RNA. Antibody to the E2 glycoprotein is important for virus clearance, and B cells enter the CNS along with CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells during the early clearance phase.