[37, 81, 82] Bozza et al. showed that CCL4 might be associated with a protective pathway for its chemoattractive and activating effect on NK cells (CD56+), which in turn are efficient cells in early virus clearance. CCL2 would be associated with thrombocytopenia and vascular permeability, which leads to plasma leakage and haemoconcentration.[37] In addition, both chemokines are able to induce find more the recruitment of monocytes, lymphocytes, dendritic cells among other types of leucocytes in infection and inflammation.[76]

Sierra et al. showed that heterologous ex vivo re-challenge using peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients induces high production of CCL2 and CCL3 in DENV-1- and DENV-3-immune subjects, which coincides with an induction of heterologous inflammatory IFN-γ

and TNF-α and with weak expression of the regulatory cytokine IL-10. These findings indicate the critical importance of previous serotype-specific immunity as an initial event linked to expression of these chemokines.[81] Both chemokines markedly activate macrophages to secrete TNF-α, IL-1 and IL-6,[35] all involved in dengue pathogenesis.[1, 2, 10] CCL2 also causes endothelial cell tight junction openings in vitro[83] and its induced expression in vascular endothelial cells increases endothelial permeability changes,[32] finally contributing selleck chemicals to the characteristic plasma leakage of DHF. A link between CCL5, a CCR1/CCR5 ligand, and hepatic dysfunction had already been shown.[84, 85] In fact, the chemokine system appears to have a dual ‘protective versus pathological’ role during experimental DENV infection. We have recently described the putative role of CC chemokine receptors CCR1, CCR2 and CCR4 in the experimental DENV-2 infection model using the adapted

P23085 strain.[69] We observed that CCR1 does not seem to have a major role in DENV pathogenesis. Levels of CCL3 Rolziracetam were increased in spleen and liver of infected mice at day 6 post-infection. However, we found that the course of infection in CCR1−/− mice was similar to that in WT mice. Levels of CCL3 were greater in spleen and liver of infected CCR1−/− compared with infected WT animals, which is in agreement with the idea that chemokine receptors work as important negative modulators or scavengers of their own ligands.[86] Elevated levels of CCL3 could eventually activate the other CCL3 receptor, CCR5. We have not investigated the role of CCR5 in DENV-2 infection outcome but it is clear that CCR1−/− mice had no major phenotype when infected with an inoculum that causes severe disease in mice. CCL2 was increased in liver and spleen of WT mice, which is a finding consistent with the literature.[37, 81, 87] In CCR2−/− infected mice, levels of IL-6 and IFN-γ, but not TNF-α, were decreased systemically.