The historic 027 isolate CD196 exhibits a similar level of tolerance to strain 630 [18]. This increase in tolerance to p-cresol in the modern hypervirulent 027 isolates may be linked to increased virulence. In addition, the hypervirulent PCR-ribotype 027 strain has a higher capacity to convert tyrosine to p-HPA resulting in a higher overall yield of p-cresol. Analysis of the decarboxylase mutants revealed that although

C. difficile can tolerate p-cresol, high click here levels have a deleterious effect on the JNK-IN-8 datasheet growth rate of C. difficile, as the mutants grow better in-vitro than their respective parent strains. Although it is evident that the 027 ribotype R20291 is more tolerant to p-cresol and produces significantly more p-cresol

than other strains, the mechanism of tolerance to p-cresol does not appear to be linked to its production. These results indicate that there is an intricate balance between optimal p-cresol production Selleck Milciclib and deleterious effects on growth. Conclusions The hypervirulent R20291 strain produces high levels of p-cresol, and has an elevated tolerance, which may contribute to the colonisation and dissemination of the 027 clonal lineage by providing a selective advantage. There is a delicate interplay between relative p-cresol production and growth rate, whereby R20291 may have reached an advantageous compromise. Materials and methods Bacterial strains and culture C. difficile strains used in this study were 630, 630Δerm and R20291. Strain 630, PCR-ribotype 012, was originally isolated from a patient with severe PMC in Zurich, Switzerland in 1982. 630Δerm is an erythromycin sensitive strain that was isolated after passage of the original sequenced strain 630 [19]. Erythromycin sensitivity is required Liothyronine Sodium for the construction of C. difficile

gene inactivation mutants. R20291, a hypervirulent PCR-ribotype 027 strain was isolated from an outbreak at Stoke Mandeville hospital in 2006 and was provided by Jon Brazier (Anaerobe reference laboratory, Cardiff, UK). Strains were stored at -80°C and were cultured on BHI Agar (Oxoid), supplemented with 0.05% L-cysteine and cycloserine/cefoxitin antibiotic supplement (Fluka) at the recommended concentrations for 1 to 2 days under anaerobic conditions, in a Modular Atmosphere Control System 500 (Don Whitney Scientific) at 37°C. Liquid cultures were grown in BHI broth (Oxiod) supplemented with 0.05% L-cysteine and cycloserine/cefoxitin antibiotic supplement (Fluka) with and without 0.1% p-HPA (Sigma), or in yeast peptone (YP) broth, 16 gL-1 peptone (Sigma), 5 gL-1 yeast (Sigma), and 5 gL-1 NaCl2 (Sigma). E. coli strain CA434, the conjugation donor, was grown in Luria-Bertani (LB) broth or agar supplemented with 12.5 μg/ml chloramphenicol. Para-cresol tolerance assays Primary cultures were inoculated with three single colonies into pre-equilibrated media, shaking at 50 rpm on an orbital shaker. At an OD600 nm of 0.3-0.